Has Russia won in the Sahel?

Image: Chérif Konaté / VOA via Wikimedia Commons

What’s happened?

Following the calls from Niger’s military junta government [CNSP] (National Council for the Safeguard of the Homeland) that all American troops must leave the country,[1] the Pentagon has now confirmed that they will withdraw its troops from the country, including Niger Air Base 201,[2] a $110 million drone airbase that the United States paid for. [3] 

What’s the background?

In January 2013, the Niger government under President Mahamadou Issoufou approved a ‘status of forces agreement’ with the United States of America.[4] This paved the way for the development of a $110 million drone airbase just south-east of Agadez, a city geographically at the centre of the Niger and strategically located in the Sahel to monitor Islamic terror groups.[5] After the coup d’états in neighbouring Mali and Guinea in 2021 and Burkina Faso in 2022, Niger followed suit in overthrowing President Mohamed Bazoum in 2023.

Has Russia won?

To quote Michal Langley, General of the United States African Command, it appears Russia is on the cusp of victory. Earlier in April this year he stated that several countries in the Sahel are on the precipice of being “captured by the Russian Federation”.[6]

At an initial glance, it might seem to be the case. Like their fellow supplanters, Niger, following their coup, took similar steps in pushing out French soldiers from their country and formed closer with Russia. Within five months of a change in government, all French forces had departed Niger.[7] The following month in January 2024, the new Nigerien Prime Minister, Ali Mahamane Lamine Zeine and Defence Minister, Salifu Modi were having talks in Moscow about increasing military and economic ties.[8] It appears that meeting is already bearing fruit, as last month around 100 soldiers from the newly created African Corps, also known as the Russian Expeditionary Corps [REK] (successor to the Wagner Group) arrived in Niger to train the Nigerien army[9] with air defence systems.[10] Some of these soldiers are now based in Niger Airbase 101 which currently still has American soliders in residence.[11] 

Similarly, in neighbouring Mali, just as French troops left Menaka, Gossi and Timbuktu military bases in December 2023, Russian Wagner troops arrived to take their place.[12] Earlier that year in February, around 400 French soldiers left Burkina Faso following anti-French and pro-Russian protests in Ouagadougou.[13]

However, despite this exodus, the United States and France still have military bases in Chad, with the latter having around a thousand soldiers[14] based in Chad’s capital N'Djamena, in Abéché to the east and Faya in the north.[15] Although, Chad has recently threatened to terminate the ‘status of forces agreement’ with America.[16] Yet, this may be just a ploy to obtain a better agreement given America’s lack of alternative countries in the region.

Outside of military matters, again Russia’s influence can be seen growing through the decline of western mining companies across the region. Orono, a mining firm owned by the French government has stopped production of uranium in its mine near Arlit, due to sanctions against the Niger junta government.[17] This comes off the back that in May 2023, two months before the Nigerien coup, Orano had secured a deal to continue mining uranium until 2040.[18] In Chad, they have nationalised all of ExxonMobil's assets in the country.[19] In Mali, Russian soldiers have seized the Intahaka gold mine to the north of the country,[20] and now have their eyes on the Loulo-Gounkoto gold mine complex, 80% of which is owned by Barrick Gold, a Canadian firm on the New York Stock Exchange.[21] Furthermore, in a move to help their Russian allies slowly acquire one of the world’s top ten producing gold mines,[22] the military junta have created new regulations to the mining code.[23] The mining code stipulates that state will increase its revenues from the mining industry. A method suggested to achieve this is through increasing the state's interest in mining firms by increasing the 'free carried interest' from 10% to 35%.[24] And in Burkina Faso, Norgold, a Russian mining company, has a significant presence in the country, controlling the Bissa and Bouly mines.[25]

On the other hand, many Western companies still operate across the Sahel. In February this year, the junta government in Conakry approved a joint development deal with Rio Tinto into Simandou, an iron ore mine.[26] And Halco, a firm based in America, owns 51% of CBG (Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinée), the largest bauxite mining company in Guinea. In Burkina Faso, Lilium Capital, an investment banking firm based in Washington D.C. owns the Boungou and Wahgnion mines.[27] In addition, in March this year the military junta in Ouagadougou approved West African Resources Limited, a firm based in Perth, Australia, to mine in Toega and Sanbrado.[28]

So, what's the verdict? Going back to General Michael Langley, he is right to suggest that Russia’s influence has significantly increased across the region, but to outrightly say that the region is ‘being captured by the Russian Federation’ would be incorrect. Unlike parts of Ukraine, Russia is not annexing territory to join its federation. Even if they wanted to, they would have to compete with the region's multiple non-state actors such as IS and Al-Qaeda in the Sahel (JNIM). Moreover, it cannot be forgotten that China has a significant presence in the area. China operates a bauxite mine in Guinea and a gold mine in Burkina Faso.[29] Through its CNPC (China National Petroleum Corporation) and CNNC (China National Nuclear Corporation), China is the second largest foreign investor in Niger after France.[30] And in Mali, China controls 50% of Goulamina, a lithium mine in the south of the country.[31] Thus, with all these actors, and the potential that Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso could force Russia out just as they have with France and the United States, I would deem it premature at the least to state Russia has won in the Sahel.

Why does it matter?

Despite the presence of Western armed forces in the area for many years, the threat from Islamic insurgency remains ever-present. As recently as October 2023, 29 people died following a raid by the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (IS-GS) in Tabatol, a village situated in the Tahoua region. This occurred less than a week after a separate attack where 12 soldiers were killed in Kandadji, an area of Niger which borders Burkina Faso and Mali, and has a strong presence of Al-Qaeda and Islamic State groups.

With the removal of Western troops and the unlikelihood that Russian soldiers would be able to fill in the vacuum, due to the ongoing war in Ukraine taking precedence with troop numbers, the security situation across the Sahel, a region which accounted for 43% of the world’s deaths by terrorism[32] will probably deteriorate further. This will likely lead to more extreme violence and an increase in massacres as seen in the Central African Republic,[33] as Russian soldiers compensate for their lack of numbers. This will naturally provide ample reason for people to join the already present Islamic fundamentalist groups such as Jama'at Nusrat al-Islam wal Muslimeen (JNIM), Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS) and the Islamic State in the West African Province (ISWAP),[34] thus extenuating the cycle.

Besides the likelihood of more violence, you may be asking, how will Russia’s growing presence affect the West? Firstly, the migration crisis will deteriorate. The Sahel is a passage area for migrants travelling towards Europe. As of 2023 there are more than 700,000 migrants from 43 nations in Libya,[35] many of which have come through the Sahel which currently has 4.2 million displaced people.[36] As instability in the region grows, more people will flee the ensuing chaos of war and poverty aiming for Europe, thus extenuating a problem which the continent is trying to grapple with as seen with the recent calls of 19 EU nations calling for a Rwanda return scheme like the UK.[37] To make matters worse, as Russian influence in the Sahel increases, they will likely further add to the migration issue as tactic to destabilise Europe according to Frontex, the European Union’s border and coast guard agency.[38] This has already being seen in Finalnd, prompting the nordic nation to close its land borders facing Russia.[39]

Secondly, this will affect Western mining firms. As violence and instability increase, so will the cost of operating in the area, from an increase in security personal costs, to a decrease in outside investment. This perhaps may lead to firms offloading assets in the Sahel and merging with rivals to source raw materials in safer countries as seen with BHP’s buyout proposal to Anglo-American.[40] Furthermore, mining firms will come under the political microscope and potentially face sanctions for working with military juntas who have ties with Russia. Barrick Gold fell into this following a report from the Blood Gold Report stating that it pays the Malian military junta $120 million a year to operate the Loulo-Gounkoto gold complex.[41]

More trouble on the horizon?

Despite the climbdown from Nigeria’s President Bola Tinbu’s threat of invading Niger following its coup and departure of Ecowas for the ‘Alliance of the Sahel States’ instead,[42] the potential for further conflict remains on the horizon. As Russia has consolidated control across the Sahel, it has also done so in Libya, earning up to $5 billion in oil revenues with the help of its circa 2000 soldiers in the country.[43] As a result, the West has belatedly awoken to this macabre reality, as seen with the United States slowly forging a military foothold in the country to counter Russian influence, with rumours[44] that it was behind attacks on the Al-Kharruba airbase in June 2023[45] and in Al Jufra airbase in December 2023.[46] What does this mean for the Sahel? Following the Nigerien junta’s recent meeting with Iran regarding the sale of 300 tonnes of uranium[47] within the background of worsening ties between Israel and Iran, this may force the United States to take decisive action across the region as a whole to bring it back into its sphere of influence.

Footnotes

[1] BBC News, “Niger’s Junta Revokes Military Agreement with US,” BBC News, March 17, 2024, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-68590531.

[2] Carol Valade and Morgane Le Cam, “American Troops Withdraw from Niger While Facing Pressure from Chad,” Le Monde.fr, April 22, 2024, https://www.lemonde.fr/en/le-monde-africa/article/2024/04/22/american-troops-withdrawing-from-niger-while-facing-pressure-from-chad_6669114_124.html.

[3] Joe Penney, “Drones in the Sahara: A Massive U.S. Drone Base Could Destabilize Niger - and May Even Be Illegal under Its Constitution,” The Intercept, February 18, 2018, https://theintercept.com/2018/02/18/niger-air-base-201-africom-drones/.

[4] “Niger (13-128) - Agreement on Defense Status of Forces - United States Department of State,” U.S. Department of State, January 28, 2013, https://www.state.gov/13-128.

[5] Penney, “Drones in the Sahara,”.

[6] Emma Ogao and Morgan Winsor, “US to Withdraw Troops from Niger after Military Deal Revoked,” ABC News, April 25, 2024, https://abcnews.go.com/International/us-plans-withdraw-troops-niger/story?id=109568976.

[7] Al Jazeera, “Last Set of French Troops Exit Niger as Sahel Sheds Parisian Influence,” Al Jazeera, December 22, 2023, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/12/22/last-set-of-french-troops-exit-niger-as-sahel-sheds-parisian-influence#:~:text=The%20last%20French%20troops%20in,Salim%20Ibrahim%20said%20on%20Friday.

[8] Maxim Rodiono and Jonathan Oatis, “Russia and Niger Agree to Develop Military Ties, Moscow Says | Reuters,” ed. Ron Popeski, Reuters - World, January 16, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/russia-niger-agree-develop-military-ties-moscow-says-2024-01-16/.

[9] Ogao et al, “US to Withdraw Troops,”.

[10] A.Y. Barma, “Coopération Militaire: Pendant Que Les Américains, à La Suite Des Français, Sont Poussés à La Porte, Les Russes Débarquent Au Niger,” Actu Niger, April 12, 2024, https://www.actuniger.com/politique/20036-cooperation-militaire-pendant-que-les-americains-a-la-suite-des-francais-sont-pousses-a-la-porte-les-russes-debarquent-au-niger.html.

[11] Phil Stewart and Idrees Ali, “Russian Troops Enter Base Housing US Military in Niger, US Official Says,” Africa, May 3, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/russian-troops-enter-base-housing-us-military-niger-us-official-says-2024-05-02/.

[12] Al Jazeera, “Last Set of French Troops,”.

[13] Thiam Ndiaga, “Burkina Faso Marks Official End of French Military Operations on Its Soil,” Africa, February 20, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/burkina-faso-marks-official-end-french-military-operations-its-soil-2023-02-19/.

[14] Staff Writer With AFP, “French Troops to Stay in Chad: Macron Envoy,” The Defense Post, March 8, 2024, https://www.thedefensepost.com/2024/03/08/french-troops-stay-chad/.

[15] Mamadou Faye, “Why Does France Have Military Bases in Africa?,” BBC News, November 6, 2023, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-67278027.

[16] Haley Britzky, Oren Liebermann, and Natasha Bertrand, “Chad’s Government Threatens to Kick out US Troops as Russia Expands Influence in Africa | CNN Politics,” CNN, April 18, 2024, https://edition.cnn.com/2024/04/18/politics/chad-us-troops-threat/index.html.

[17] Francois De Beaupuy, “Orano Halts Uranium Ore Processing at Nigerian Plant Due to Sanctions on Junta,” Bloomberg.com, September 8, 2023, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-09-08/orano-halts-uranium-treatment-in-niger-amid-sanctions-on-junta.

[18] AfricaNews, “Niger: Uranium Mine Set to Operate until 2040,” Africanews, May 4, 2023, https://www.africanews.com/2023/05/04/niger-uranium-mine-set-to-operate-until-2040/.

[19] Reuters, “Chad Says It Has Nationalized All Assets Owned by Exxon Mobil,” Energy Exploration & Production Refining, March 23, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/chad-says-it-has-nationalized-all-assets-owned-by-exxon-mobil-2023-03-23/.

[20] Staff Writer, “Barrick under Pressure in Mali as Regime Eyes Control of Loulo-Gounkoto,” Mining.com, April 15, 2024, https://www.mining.com/barrick-under-pressure-in-mali-as-regime-eyes-control-of-loulo-gounkoto.

[21] Barrick Gold, “Barrick Gold Corporation - Operations - Loulo-Gounkoto,” Loulo-Gounkoto Mali, accessed May 2, 2024, https://www.barrick.com/English/operations/loulo-gounkoto/default.aspx.

[22] Staff Writer, “Loulo-Gounkoto to Remain among World’s Top 10 Gold Producers – Bristow,” Mining.com, October 8, 2023, https://www.mining.com/loulo-gounkoto-to-remain-among-worlds-top-10-gold-producers-bristow.

[23] Staff Writer, “Barrick under Pressure,”.

[24] Adrien Canivet and Augustin Barrier, “The Impact of Mali’s Revised Legislation on Foreign Mining Companies,” Lexology, October 19, 2023, https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=d34f08f2-c46a-4d50-8669-932a49dc1a4a#:~:text=The%20New%20Mining%20Code%20was,gold%20shine%20for%20the%20Malians%E2%80%9D.

[25] Reuters, “Burkina Faso Denies Favouring Russia’s Nordgold over Gold Mine Permit | Reuters,” Africa, February 6, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/burkina-faso-denies-favouring-russias-nordgold-over-gold-mine-permit-2023-02-06/.

[26] Reuters, “Guinea Approves Joint Development Deal for Simandou Iron Ore Project,” Commodities, February 4, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/guinea-approves-joint-development-deal-simandou-iron-ore-project-2024-02-04/.

[27] Mining Review Africa, “Endeavour Mining Sells Boungou and Wahgnion Mines,” Miningreview.com, June 30, 2023, https://www.miningreview.com/gold/endeavour-mining-sells-boungou-and-wahgnion-mines/.

[28] Jane Bentham, “West African Resources Receives Mining Permit Approval,” Global Mining Review, March 27, 2024, https://www.globalminingreview.com/mining/27032024/west-african-resources-receives-mining-permit-approval/.

[29] Aki Elborzi, “China’s Non-Interference Principle and the Military Coups in Africa: A Clash With the African Union?,” SOAS China Institute, February 28, 2024, https://blogs.soas.ac.uk/china-institute/2024/02/28/chinas-non-interference-principle-and-the-military-coups-in-africa/.

[30] Elborzi, “China’s Non-Interference,".

[31] Elborzi, “China’s Non-Interference,".

[31] Mark A. Green, “The Sahel Now Accounts for 43% of Global Terrorism Deaths,” Wilson Center, May 16, 2023, https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/sahel-now-accounts-43-global-terrorism-deaths.

[33] Guy Birchall, “The African Nation Where Prigozhin’s Wagner Group Has Been ‘Perfecting a Nightmarish Blueprint for State Capture,’” Sky News, June 28, 2023, https://news.sky.com/story/wagner-group-responsible-for-torture-killings-and-rampant-exploitation-of-resources-in-africa-12910193.

[34] Center for Preventive Action, “Violent Extremism in the Sahel | Global Conflict Tracker,” Council on Foreign Relations, February 14, 2024, https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/violent-extremism-sahel#:~:text=Organizations%20including%20Jama’at%20Nusrat,indiscriminate%20attacks%20on%20government%20forces.

[35] International Organization for Migration, “Displacement Tracking Matrix (DTM) Libya’s Migrant Report: Round 48 (May - June 2023) - Libya,” ReliefWeb, October 31, 2023, https://reliefweb.int/report/libya/displacement-tracking-matrix-dtm-libyas-migrant-report-round-48-may-june-2023#:~:text=IOM%20Libya’s%20Displacement%20Tracking%20Matrix,(May%20%2D%20June%202023).

[36] USA for UNHCR - The UN Refugee Agency, “Sahel Refugee Crisis,” USA for UNHCR - The UN Refugee Agency, accessed May 14, 2024, https://www.unrefugees.org/emergencies/sahel-crisis/#:~:text=More%20than%204.2%20million%20people,region%20(as%20of%202023).

[37] James Tapsfield, “Nineteen EU Countries Demand the Right to Introduce Rwanda-Style Deportation Schemes amid Signs the UK’s New Law Is Already Having a Deterrent Effect,” Daily Mail Online, May 14, 2024, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-13416067/EU-Rwanda-deportation-UK-law-deterrent-migrants-Channel.html.

[38] Hayley Dixon, “Revealed: How Putin Plans to Flood West with Migrants,” The Telegraph, February 29, 2024, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/02/29/putin-russia-wagner-militia-africa-immigration-europe/.

[39] David Mac Dougall, “Russia Using ‘hybrid Warfare’ to Push Migrants over Finnish Border,” News - World - Finland, November 14, 2023, https://www.euronews.com/2023/11/14/finland-says-russia-is-helping-migrants-make-their-way-over-the-eastern-border.

[40] Clara Denina, “Anglo American Rejects BHP’s Revised $42.7 Billion Buyout Proposal | Reuters,” Deals, May 13, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/markets/deals/bhp-says-anglo-american-rejected-revised-proposal-2024-05-13/.

[41] Colin McClelland, “Barrick’s Mali Mine Feeds Russian War Machine, Advocacy Group Says,” Mining.com, April 30, 2024, https://www.northernminer.com/esg/barricks-mali-mine-feeds-russian-war-machine-group-says/1003866842/.

[42] Mansur Abubakar, “Bola Tinubu’s U-Turn on Niger Sanctions Received with Relief in Northern Nigeria,” BBC News, March 16, 2024, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-68563579.

[43] Alia Brahimi, “Russia Is Profiting from an Oil Corruption Binge in Libya,” Newsweek, April 29, 2024, https://www.newsweek.com/russia-profiting-oil-corruption-binge-libya-opinion-1895350.

[44] Marco Giannangeli, “Russia’s Influence in Africa Reaching ‘dangerous’ Levels,” Express.co.uk, May 11, 2024, https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/1898126/Russia-Africa-influence-libya.

[45] Al Jazeera, “Drone Attacks Hit Wagner Base in Libya; No Casualties Reported,” Al Jazeera, June 30, 2023, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/6/30/drone-attacks-hit-wagner-base-in-libya-no-casualties-reported.

[46] Agenzia Nova, “Libya: ‘Nova’ Sources, Wagner Group Plane Hit by a Raid on the Al Jufrah Base,” Agenzia Nova, December 14, 2023, https://www.agenzianova.com/en/news/libia-fonti-nova-aereo-del-gruppo-wagner-colpito-da-un-raid-nella-base-di-al-jufrah/.

[47] Pierre-Elie de Rohan Chabot and Paul Deutschmann, “Niger: Washington Watches as Tehran Negotiates with Niamey for 300 Tonnes of Uranium,” Africa Intelligence, April 30, 2024, https://www.africaintelligence.com/west-africa/2024/04/30/washington-watches-as-tehran-negotiates-with-niamey-for-300-tonnes-of-uranium,110221410-ge0.

Bibliography

Abubakar, Mansur. “Bola Tinubu’s U-Turn on Niger Sanctions Received with Relief in Northern Nigeria.” BBC News, March 16, 2024. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-68563579.

AfricaNews. “Niger: Uranium Mine Set to Operate until 2040.” Africanews, May 4, 2023. https://www.africanews.com/2023/05/04/niger-uranium-mine-set-to-operate-until-2040/.

Agenzia Nova. “Libya: ‘Nova’ Sources, Wagner Group Plane Hit by a Raid on the Al Jufrah Base.” Agenzia Nova, December 14, 2023. https://www.agenzianova.com/en/news/libia-fonti-nova-aereo-del-gruppo-wagner-colpito-da-un-raid-nella-base-di-al-jufrah/.

Al Jazeera. “Drone Attacks Hit Wagner Base in Libya; No Casualties Reported.” Al Jazeera, June 30, 2023. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/6/30/drone-attacks-hit-wagner-base-in-libya-no-casualties-reported.

Al Jazeera. “Last Set of French Troops Exit Niger as Sahel Sheds Parisian Influence.” Al Jazeera, December 22, 2023. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/12/22/last-set-of-french-troops-exit-niger-as-sahel-sheds-parisian-influence#:~:text=The%20last%20French%20troops%20in,Salim%20Ibrahim%20said%20on%20Friday.

Barma, A.Y. “Coopération Militaire: Pendant Que Les Américains, à La Suite Des Français, Sont Poussés à La Porte, Les Russes Débarquent Au Niger.” Actu Niger, April 12, 2024. https://www.actuniger.com/politique/20036-cooperation-militaire-pendant-que-les-americains-a-la-suite-des-francais-sont-pousses-a-la-porte-les-russes-debarquent-au-niger.html. 

Barrick Gold. “Barrick Gold Corporation - Operations - Loulo-Gounkoto.” Loulo-Gounkoto Mali. Accessed May 2, 2024. https://www.barrick.com/English/operations/loulo-gounkoto/default.aspx. 

BBC News. “Niger’s Junta Revokes Military Agreement with US.” BBC News, March 17, 2024. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-68590531.

Beaupuy, Francois De. “Orano Halts Uranium Ore Processing at Nigerian Plant Due to Sanctions on Junta.” Bloomberg.com, September 8, 2023. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-09-08/orano-halts-uranium-treatment-in-niger-amid-sanctions-on-junta. 

Bentham, Jane. “West African Resources Receives Mining Permit Approval.” Global Mining Review, March 27, 2024. https://www.globalminingreview.com/mining/27032024/west-african-resources-receives-mining-permit-approval/.

Birchall, Guy. “The African Nation Where Prigozhin’s Wagner Group Has Been ‘Perfecting a Nightmarish Blueprint for State Capture.’” Sky News, June 28, 2023. https://news.sky.com/story/wagner-group-responsible-for-torture-killings-and-rampant-exploitation-of-resources-in-africa-12910193.

Brahimi, Alia. “Russia Is Profiting from an Oil Corruption Binge in Libya.” Newsweek, April 29, 2024. https://www.newsweek.com/russia-profiting-oil-corruption-binge-libya-opinion-1895350.

Britzky, Haley, Oren Liebermann, and Natasha Bertrand. “Chad’s Government Threatens to Kick out US Troops as Russia Expands Influence in Africa | CNN Politics.” CNN, April 18, 2024. https://edition.cnn.com/2024/04/18/politics/chad-us-troops-threat/index.html. 

Center for Preventive Action. “Violent Extremism in the Sahel | Global Conflict Tracker.” Council on Foreign Relations, February 14, 2024. https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/violent-extremism-sahel#:~:text=Organizations%20including%20Jama’at%20Nusrat,indiscriminate%20attacks%20on%20government%20forces.

Canivet, Adrien, and Augustin Barrier. “The Impact of Mali’s Revised Legislation on Foreign Mining Companies.” Lexology, October 19, 2023. https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=d34f08f2-c46a-4d50-8669-932a49dc1a4a#:~:text=The%20New%20Mining%20Code%20was,gold%20shine%20for%20the%20Malians%E2%80%9D.

Denina, Clara. “Anglo American Rejects BHP’s Revised $42.7 Billion Buyout Proposal | Reuters.” Deals, May 13, 2024. https://www.reuters.com/markets/deals/bhp-says-anglo-american-rejected-revised-proposal-2024-05-13/.

Dixon, Hayley. “Revealed: How Putin Plans to Flood West with Migrants.” The Telegraph, February 29, 2024. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/02/29/putin-russia-wagner-militia-africa-immigration-europe/.

Elborzi, Aki. “China’s Non-Interference Principle and the Military Coups in Africa: A Clash With the African Union?” SOAS China Institute, February 28, 2024. https://blogs.soas.ac.uk/china-institute/2024/02/28/chinas-non-interference-principle-and-the-military-coups-in-africa/.

Faye, Mamadou. “Why Does France Have Military Bases in Africa?” BBC News, November 6, 2023. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-67278027. 

Giannangeli, Marco. “Russia’s Influence in Africa Reaching ‘dangerous’ Levels.” Express.co.uk, May 11, 2024. https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/1898126/Russia-Africa-influence-libya.

Green, Mark A. “The Sahel Now Accounts for 43% of Global Terrorism Deaths.” Wilson Center, May 16, 2023. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/sahel-now-accounts-43-global-terrorism-deaths. 

International Organization for Migration. “Displacement Tracking Matrix (DTM) Libya’s Migrant Report: Round 48 (May - June 2023) - Libya.” ReliefWeb, October 31, 2023. https://reliefweb.int/report/libya/displacement-tracking-matrix-dtm-libyas-migrant-report-round-48-may-june-2023#:~:text=IOM%20Libya’s%20Displacement%20Tracking%20Matrix,(May%20%2D%20June%202023).

Mac Dougall, David. “Russia Using ‘hybrid Warfare’ to Push Migrants over Finnish Border.” News - World - Finland, November 14, 2023. https://www.euronews.com/2023/11/14/finland-says-russia-is-helping-migrants-make-their-way-over-the-eastern-border.

McClelland, Colin. “Barrick’s Mali Mine Feeds Russian War Machine, Advocacy Group Says.” Mining.com, April 30, 2024. https://www.northernminer.com/esg/barricks-mali-mine-feeds-russian-war-machine-group-says/1003866842/.

Mining Review Africa. “Endeavour Mining Sells Boungou and Wahgnion Mines.” Miningreview.com, June 30, 2023. https://www.miningreview.com/gold/endeavour-mining-sells-boungou-and-wahgnion-mines/.

Ndiaga, Thiam. “Burkina Faso Marks Official End of French Military Operations on Its Soil.” Africa, February 20, 2023. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/burkina-faso-marks-official-end-french-military-operations-its-soil-2023-02-19/. 

“Niger (13-128) - Agreement on Defense Status of Forces - United States Department of State.” U.S. Department of State, January 28, 2013. https://www.state.gov/13-128.

Ogao, Emma, and Morgan Winsor. “US to Withdraw Troops from Niger after Military Deal Revoked.” ABC News, April 25, 2024. https://abcnews.go.com/International/us-plans-withdraw-troops-niger/story?id=109568976. 

Penney, Joe. “Drones in the Sahara: A Massive U.S. Drone Base Could Destabilize Niger - and May Even Be Illegal under Its Constitution.” The Intercept, February 18, 2018. https://theintercept.com/2018/02/18/niger-air-base-201-africom-drones/.

Reuters. “Burkina Faso Denies Favouring Russia’s Nordgold over Gold Mine Permit | Reuters.” Africa, February 6, 2023. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/burkina-faso-denies-favouring-russias-nordgold-over-gold-mine-permit-2023-02-06/.

Reuters. “Chad Says It Has Nationalized All Assets Owned by Exxon Mobil.” Energy Exploration & Production Refining, March 23, 2023. https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/chad-says-it-has-nationalized-all-assets-owned-by-exxon-mobil-2023-03-23/.

Reuters. “Guinea Approves Joint Development Deal for Simandou Iron Ore Project.” Commodities, February 4, 2024. https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/guinea-approves-joint-development-deal-simandou-iron-ore-project-2024-02-04/. 

Rodiono, Maxim, and Jonathan Oatis. “Russia and Niger Agree to Develop Military Ties, Moscow Says | Reuters.” Edited by Ron Popeski. Reuters - World, January 16, 2024. https://www.reuters.com/world/russia-niger-agree-develop-military-ties-moscow-says-2024-01-16/.

Rohan Chabot, Pierre-Elie de, and Paul Deutschmann. “Niger: Washington Watches as Tehran Negotiates with Niamey for 300 Tonnes of Uranium.” Africa Intelligence, April 30, 2024. https://www.africaintelligence.com/west-africa/2024/04/30/washington-watches-as-tehran-negotiates-with-niamey-for-300-tonnes-of-uranium,110221410-ge0.

Staff Writer With AFP. “French Troops to Stay in Chad: Macron Envoy.” The Defense Post, March 8, 2024. https://www.thedefensepost.com/2024/03/08/french-troops-stay-chad/. 

Stewart, Phil, and Idrees Ali. “Russian Troops Enter Base Housing US Military in Niger, US Official Says.” Africa, May 3, 2024. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/russian-troops-enter-base-housing-us-military-niger-us-official-says-2024-05-02/.

Tapsfield, James. “Nineteen EU Countries Demand the Right to Introduce Rwanda-Style Deportation Schemes amid Signs the UK’s New Law Is Already Having a Deterrent Effect.” Daily Mail Online, May 14, 2024. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-13416067/EU-Rwanda-deportation-UK-law-deterrent-migrants-Channel.html.

USA for UNHCR - The UN Refugee Agency. “Sahel Refugee Crisis.” USA for UNHCR - The UN Refugee Agency. Accessed May 14, 2024. https://www.unrefugees.org/emergencies/sahel-crisis/#:~:text=More%20than%204.2%20million%20people,region%20(as%20of%202023).

Valade, Carol, and Morgane Le Cam. “American Troops Withdraw from Niger While Facing Pressure from Chad.” Le Monde.fr, April 22, 2024. https://www.lemonde.fr/en/le-monde-africa/article/2024/04/22/american-troops-withdrawing-from-niger-while-facing-pressure-from-chad_6669114_124.html. 

Writer, Staff. “Barrick under Pressure in Mali as Regime Eyes Control of Loulo-Gounkoto.” Mining.com, April 15, 2024. https://www.mining.com/barrick-under-pressure-in-mali-as-regime-eyes-control-of-loulo-gounkoto.

Writer, Staff. “Loulo-Gounkoto to Remain among World’s Top 10 Gold Producers – Bristow.” Mining.com, October 8, 2023. https://www.mining.com/loulo-gounkoto-to-remain-among-worlds-top-10-gold-producers-bristow.